By Mojirayo Ogunlana-Nkanga
INTRODUCTION
The driving force of the clashes is the competition for available resources, especially grazing land. It seems that the government has abandoned the grazing reserve system created by the Northern region government in 1965. Then, the government created over 417 grazing reserves in the north. Under the grazing reserve system, government provided space, water and vaccinations for the livestock while the herdsmen paid taxes to the government in return. However, the discovery of oil and subsequent exploration and export made Nigeria an oil economy, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s. Subsequently, the grazing reserve system was abandoned due to the neglect of the agricultural sector as the mainstay of the country’s economy.”
However, several causes have been identified and highlighted by numerous researchers, who discovered that there was no one major cause but several factors arising at different times in history, some of which include encroachment on farmers’ lands, destruction of crops, disintegration of grazing routes,cattle rustling, lack of grazing areas, etc. Nevertheless, the genesis of this conflict in North Central Nigeria has been traced back to 1999[2] where it was reported that its emergence and development was as a result of socio-economic, religious and political factors.
Often times when discussing the issues surrounding the farmers-herders conflict, discussants and observers unconsciously or ignorantly leave out its impact on women and children, particularly girls, both aged and young.In fact, some of them almost completely forget to account for women victims in their narratives. In reviewing the book, ‘The root cause of farmers-herders crisis in North Central Nigeria’ by Plangshak Musa Suchi, and Sallek Yaks Musa, this gender perspective to the crisis exposes the social impact, economic impact and the political impact on women and girls, the effects of the continued and unabated crises on women and girls and the legal implications. Thus, this paper highlights the consequences of the farmers-herders clashes on women and girls.
BACKGROUND
Historically, farmers and herders have enjoyed peaceful co-existence in the North central region of Nigeria for years. It has been reported that farmers and herders have lived harmoniously from generations to generations and that there existed an understanding as to the responsibility of both divides, in ensuring that there is mutual respect and prevention of rancor. However, this mutual relationship began to dissipate and take on a negative outlook in the North central region of Nigeria in recent years, particularly since 1999 when it was reported that the problem began to intensify and gained recognition by the government and the media[3]. For instance, it was recorded that between 2012and2016, over2,500peoplewerekilled in the farmers-herders clashes.[4]While the media continued to report the deathly relationship between the farmers and cattle herders, it was recorded that not less than 150 women were victims of the clashes between 2014-2020[5] and amongst these where reports of a pregnant woman slaughtered with her husband in Takende Village, Guma Local Government Area (LGA) of Benue State in 2020, 13 women in Mkovur Buruku LGA of Benue State shot in 2017, over 20 women killed in Riyom LGA of Plateau State in 2015, over 15 women shot in Awe, Keana, Obi, and Doma LGA of Nasarawa State in 2018, over 15 women killed in Jandeikyula village in Wukari LGA in Taraba State, etc .The resulting bloodshed becomes not only a burden to the immediate society but also to the country as a whole. These clashes continue to pose security challenges in Nigeria and particularly for the North Central Region, which seemed to be the center stage, considering that it consists of one of the most fertile farming grounds in Nigeria, Benue State, known as the food basket of the nation.
THE CONFLICT AND CONSEQUENCES
In the States of Benue, Nasarawa and Plateau, different accounts were taken from traditional heads, local chiefs,both male and female representatives of the communities. They recounted different perspectives of the cause of the crises, raising issues and allegations, backed by witnesses’ accounts, in which the farming community claimed that herdsmen allow their cows to destroy farm produce and refuse to take responsibility for the destruction, while the herders claimed that the absence of grazing routes have been mainly responsible for the problem of crop destruction and that if grazing routes were provided for their cattle, crop destruction will not arise. Some herders have also claimed that farmers conspire to steal their cattle which provoke them to attack these communities. In circumstances where encroachment arose and the farmers took action to protect their produce, either by beating up the perpetrators or by seizing the cattle, the herders usually resisted and fought, which then degenerates to situations like revenge attack, where vulnerable women farmers, or wives and children of the farmers are attacked. Some women were raped, kidnapped, tortured and killed.[6]There was also a report of a long established war between the Fulani herdsmen and the Tiv ethnic community of Benue and Nasarawa States[7] arising from crop destruction and retaliatory attacks. In order words, the conflict results in meaningless killings and loss of lives, insecurity of innocent lives and properties, loss of agricultural produce, displacement and threats to national security.
GENDER IMPLICATIONS
In all of these accounts, the perpetrators of these heinous crimes are usually male Fulani herders and mostly male farmers and at the center of it all are women and children, who become widowed, displaced, and orphaned. Women and children are categorized as vulnerable groups during crisis, and their frailty or vulnerability are usually exploited. For instance the researchers[8] pointed out the testimonies of Chief of Usha, in the community of Agatu LGA, Benue State (KII with the Chief of Usha, Usha, 21/10/2020), that women were killed by Fulani herdsmen and they ran off. There have also been reports of rape, kidnapping, etc. All point to the fact that women continue to experience highest levels of gender violence and inequality. As these criminal events continue to unfold and remain unabated, there is not a doubt that women and girls are at a disadvantage in the confrontations, mostly because they are unarmed and dependents of the male farmers who lose their lives in the conflict. Apart from the use of arms, women and children cannot match the physical strength of these male violators, who do not hesitate to plunder and destroy with pleasure. Thus women and girls have to survive different forms of violence from the moment of the crises till afterwards when the perpetrators have moved on. This is because generally, women and girls are categorized as vulnerable and so ordinarily, odds are stacked against them in different societies were there’s relatively peace.
A review of ‘the root cause of farmers-herders crisis in North Central Nigeria’ by Plangshak Musa Suchi, and Sallek Yaks Musa and some few other papers referenced here, expose the consequences of the confrontations between the two factions on women and children in the following subheadings:
- Sexual Violence: Sexual violence encompasses sexual abuse, sexual assault, sexual harassment and sexual intimidation. Graphically, this means that herders/farmers compel, force or threatens and in fact overpower women and girls to forcefully have sexual intercourse with them without consent. The Violence Against Persons Prohibition (VAPP) Act 2015 defines sexual violence as follows:
- “sexual abuse” means any conduct which violates, humiliates or degrades the sexual integrity of any person;
- “sexual assault” means the intentional and unlawful touching, striking or causing of bodily harm to an individual in a sexual manner without his or her consent;
- “sexual exploitation” occurs where a perpetrator, for financial or other reward, favour or compensation invites, persuades, engages or induces the services of a victim, or offers or performs such services to any other person;
- “sexual harassment” means unwanted conduct of a sexual nature or other conduct based on sex or gender which is persistent or serious and demeans, humiliates or creates a hostile or intimidating environment and this may include physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct.
These elements are experienced by women and girls at different stages of the conflict. First women and girls get raped on the farm[9] and it was further reported that conflicts occur on the farm where cutlasses, machetes, and guns are involved and women farmers are raped.[10]The attendant outcome is one of shame; stigma and some women are rejected by the family and the community. Where a woman has undergone rape or loss of their breadwinner, they move away from that community and in a lot of cases into Internally Displaced Persons’ (IDP) camps, where it has been sufficiently reported that women and girls continue to experience all manner of abuses from the male occupants in the IDP camps and men outside these camps. It has been reported that teenage and underage girls are daily abused and exploited in IDP camps[11] but rarely will they speak out about it in order to protect their dignity. Furthermore, the Legal Defence and Assistance Project (LEDAP) reported that ‘women and girls are randomly raped in exchange for food and water and that the incidences occurred mostly in the host communities and the Internally Displaced Persons, IDPs camps located in Borno, Adamawa, Yobe states and Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory.’[12] It was also reported that these attacks have targeted women and girls travelling to displaced persons camps or to towns, leaving the relative protection of those locations to collect firewood, water or other items, and taking these goods to market to sell in exchange for necessary family items.’[13]These outlandish situations not only leave women and girls to suffer physically but also compel them to suffer emotional and psychological violence without access to therapy or psychosocial support. In a lot of cases, these survivors do not seek mental health support and in reality, such support services are rare in the country. The ripple effect of silence is later experienced by the society should the survivors continue to live through repeated trauma, through revictimization or repeated exposure to abuse.[14]
According to a United States report by the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN)[15], after conducting several investigations, ‘sexual violence can have long term effects on victims and manifest in the forms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) during the two weeks following the rape, symptoms of PTSD 9 months after the rape, contemplation of suicide, attempt of suicide, and it stated that approximately 70% of rape or sexual assault victims experience moderate to severe distress, a larger percentage than for any other violent crime. It also stated that people who have been sexually assaulted are more likely to use drugs than the general public, sexual violence also affects victims’ relationships with their family, friends, and co-workers; Victims are at risk of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).’
- Socio-Economic Impact: The conflict situation deprives women of their livelihood and in this case women and girls are forced to experience economic violence, which is defined under the Violence Against Persons Prohibition (VAPP) Act 2015 to include: “…the unreasonable deprivation of economic or financial resources to which any person is entitled or which any person requires out of necessity and the unreasonable disposal or destruction of household effects or other property in which any person has an interest…” Women and children in crisis infested areas are deprived of their economic sustenance. In fact, due to manifest insecurity in their communities, they flee their farms and are unable to access the farms afterwards to harvest their crops, which may have produced or in other cases these become spoilt or are destroyed by cattle or harvested by other people. In addition, the hardships women experience during and after violent confrontations negatively impact their significant role of sustaining communal cohesion and social capital, in that, the loss of family members, disruption of the family structure, and breakdown of intergroup relations along ethnic and religious lines directly threaten women’s capacity to sustain the societal bond and togetherness.[17]
According to the reports of Plangshak Musa Suchi, and Sallek Yaks Musa[18], due to the farmers-herders clashes, a lot of people have been displaced in the North Central Nigeria and they reported that there are four large IDP camps in Benue which reveals the intensity of farmers-herders crisis. The International Crisis Group in 2018 reported that in 2018 alone, about 300,000 people were displaced in communities in Plateau, Nasarawa, Benue, Adamawa and Taraba States in the violence and reprisal attacks flowing from the farmers-herders clashes. The situation is so dire that it was reported that a 70 hectares farmland cultivated to help internally displaced victims of Fulani attacks was reportedly destroyed by Fulani herders using over 300 cattle in a strategically planned overnight attack in Rotsu village of Miango District in Bassa Local Government Area of Plateau State[19] Amongst the displaced persons are women and girls who then find it hard to make ends meet, moreso where they have lost their husbands or forced to separate from men who usually provide for them. There are also situations where the clashes result in permanent injuries on the women, making it impossible to provide their basic needs. In addition, most of these women are uneducated and the community is unable to support them because in most cases, the community as a whole is also affected.
- Widowhood: Generally in Africa, this serves as a significant change of living condition in women’s lives. African widows, irrespective of ethnic groups, are amongst the most vulnerable and destitute in the region.[20]Widowhood entails the observance of certain rites by women and these rites differ culturally in Nigeria. It is commonly regarded as a test of the woman’s fidelity to her late husband and a cleansing ritual to free the woman from curses attached to his death. Various tribes and cultures in Nigeria have diverse ways of practicing rites pertaining to burial which usually is hard on women. The loss of the spouse, usually the main provider for the family, results in the loss of social status and reduction or complete loss of economic status. In violent clashes that result in the death of the male provider, this generates a lot of stress for the woman because in most cases, she is forced into unpleasant cultural widowhood practices in the community. A lot of widows in the North central region are forced to experience discrimination of varying degrees whether under the traditions or religion they practice. Widowhood forces women, apart from being direct victims themselves, into carrying the burden of care giving and household responsibilities without adequate family, societal and governmental support.For instance in Idoma land, Benue State, the widow mourns in sack clothes for at least one year. She then performs the cleansing ceremony assisted by her age grade before she is allowed to re-marry within or outside her dead husband’s family. Under this custom, only a man’s brothers inherit him and not his wife.[21] In Ilorin, Kwara State, where indigenes are mainly Muslims and the major ethnic groups are Yoruba, Fulani, Hausa and Nupe, widows are prevented from going to the farm and market during the mourning period. In fact, she is prevented from performing household chores and some are prevented from eating certain kinds of food, or changing clothes during the mourning period.[22]Ultimately, these practices force women into isolation as she no longer fits into that society. Some women even decide to flee to cities or other parts of the country while some remain indoors to avoid further violence. In order words, a widow and her children will have to suffer both the loss of her husband and the discriminatory practices from the society in which she resides.
- Health: Health involves the ability to function physically, mentally, emotionally and spiritually. In the aftermath of the violent conflicts between farmers and herders, women and girls encounter different health challenges. A lot of these women and girls suffer physical injuries due to gun shots, hours of migration and relocation or injuries sustained during flight from the herdsmen, hunger and malnutrition and psychological disturbances such as nightmares and trauma.[23]For those who are forced to perform widowhood rites, they experience physical hardship due to the constraint compelled on them, emotional instability, and psychological trauma.[24]For some young girls, going back to school becomes a huge struggle because of the fear of abduction and sexual harassment. For women and girls who suffer sexual violence, they are faced with certain health threats due to their biological makeup. This could be in the forms of sexually transmitted diseases; unwanted pregnancies and forced childbirth;complications arising from unsafe abortions; vaginal traumas such as vesico-vaginal fistula, mutilation, and scarring; uterine problems; loss of sexual urge or pleasure, etc.[25]Then there is the issue of stigma and suffering in silence which could result in depression and insanity and so many other physical and mental health issues.
- Singlehood:As the men go into conflicts, everything in the household and community is left in the hands of women. Women immediately take up the roles of solely fending for the family. When their men are killed in the conflict, it becomes clear that they are the heads of the family. In most African society, once a woman or girl is single and without a male protector, she becomes a prey for violence. Where women farmers lose their sustenance or the male provider and are forced to take up different odd jobs to make ends meet, they become a target of perverse male desires. In most cases they are prevented from owning lands and this forces them to look for different means of providing for their households. In cases where the lands are available for cultivation, there’s always still the threat of farming on the same land, the subject of the crisis which led to the loss of their men. Most times for fear of their lives and the trauma associated with the land, they avoid venturing into the same farms. Apart from these, they experience different forms of discrimination, such as they lose protection and freedom of movement, they are exposed to violence and abuse, they are forced into marriages, forced to be pregnant, forced to have abortions, forced into trafficking, etc.
RESPONSES AND SOLUTION
According to Plangshak Musa Suchi, and Sallek Yaks Musa, the Nigerian government’s responses to the farmers-herders crisis have been “…the deployment of security forces especially the army, the police and Civil Defence to restore and maintain peace in the affected communities and…is widely adjudged by the affected communities as reactionary and grossly ineffective in most cases”. In fact, there have been allegations by research participants that security agencies are complicit. This was also reported by Amnesty International in its 2018 report, “Harvest of Death: Three Years of Bloody Clashes Between Farmers and Herders”, which recorded facts documenting clashes between farmers and herders from January 2016. According to its country Director, Osai Ojigho, “The Nigerian government has displayed what can only be described as gross incompetence and has failed in its duty to protect the lives of its population and end the intensifying conflict between herders and farmers. The authorities’ lethargy has allowed impunity to flourish and the killings to spread to many parts of the country, inflicting greater suffering on communities who already live in constant fear of the next attack…our research shows that these attacks were well planned and coordinated, with the use of weapons like machine guns and AK-47 rifles. Yet, little has been done by the authorities in terms of prevention, arrests and prosecutions, even when information about the suspected perpetrators was available.” Some of the research participants in these North Central States also believe that the government’s actions over the years have contributed largely to the conflict. Some cited “…government policies allocating land to rich individual farmers at the expense of herders; violent activities of farmer- allied vigilante groups known as yan sa kai (volunteer guards) and herder- allied militias known as yan-bindinga (gun owners); complicity of community members and politicians; and state authorities’ negligence/lack of leadership in dealing with the crisis”.[26] In addition, “Eye witnesses, victims, local officials and others that were independently interviewed have recounted several incidents where police and soldiers have either ignored credible warnings of impending attacks and/or abandoned people during or just before deadly attacks by heavily armed groups, suspected to be members of herder or farmer communities”[27]
This obviously reveals that the people do not have faith in their government and that can also continue to serve as a huge problem for the region because people will still choose to resort to self-help rather than put their lives and properties in the care of the government that they believe has not protected them in the past. Ultimately, this is a critical problem for women and girls in those States, who are forced into harsh circumstances that can easily be avoided if the government shows commitment to resolving the root causes by taking responsibility for the role it played and still plays and identifying and punishing its complicit state forces.
Although it needs to be on record that the government has deployed strategic responses to the conflict in the past, such as the Creation of Grazing Reserves in 1965, Establishment of the National Commission for Nomadic Education (NCNE) in 1989, The Use of the Armed Forces to Curb Internal Security,The Great Green Wall Agency of the Federal Government, Establishment of the National Grazing Reserve Bill 2016, Cattle Ranching System 2018, Legislation Prohibiting Open Grazing;it seems that these have been unproductive as the conflict persists.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
At this stage in the crisis between the farmers and herders, there can’t be a one way solution to the problem. The government will have to adopt a multi stakeholder approach to finding a lasting solution.
Intervention Strategies for women and girls
Firstly, the farmers-herders clashes have been particularly onerous on women and children considering that the kinds of victim hood they experience are driven by the simple fact that they are weak and can’t truly defend themselves.This paper has addressed in details how women suffer different forms of violence from the inception of the crisis and continuously after all have been destroyed and displaced. At the forefront of all discussions to resolve the crisis should be the protection of women and girls who are survivors of the unaddressed carnage. Government need to set up 24hrs free psycho social support centers with toll free hotlines to encourage access for women who have undergone these traumatic experiences. The government needs to also work in hand with the Women Affairs Ministry and Commissions and women based civil society organizations operating in the North Central region to empower women and girls survivors. This is because the acquisition of skills can cushion the effects of the abrupt loss of their means of livelihood. Furthermore, the federal government needs to collaborate with the State and Local governments to set up local factories that will give women and girls job opportunities. These factories should be subjected to the oversight supervision of states, national and international civil society organizations for accountability and transparency.
The government can also establish small and medium scale businesses for women by providing capitals and also put in place mechanisms for ensuring the proper management of those businesses by employing monitoring business staff that will supervise and act as business counselors for the women. These staff strength could be drawn from successful entrepreneurs with proven achievements or graduates with more than five years’ experience in practical business administration.
Young girls and teenagers should be compelled to attend tuition free schools, with government sponsoring all their educational necessities such as uniforms, books, feeding and transportation. For transportation, the government can provide school buses with designated drivers, whose qualifications and backgrounds have been properly scrutinized. This is to ensure that the drivers do not become easily influenced by corrupt state forces who would want to lure them into their nefarious activities.
Security and Peace building
Security must continue to be the first priority of the government. Security should be improved for both herders and farmers to prevent further break down of law and order. In fact, the government needs to put in place structures that will guarantee proactive responses to the crisis. Then the government has to carry out arrests and punish offenders. This is one step to rebuilding trust in the government.
Another security measure which has strong merits is community policing. Government needs to encourage existing structures within the community such as vigilante groups, to provide information that would assist security personnel in arresting culprits. Such groups also need the protection of government enforcement agencies and this should be provided with adequate mechanisms for checking the activities of the latter to ensure compliance and efficiency.
On peace building, women and girls should not be underestimated and tossed aside. They shouldn’t only be seen as victims of the conflict but included in the conflict prevention efforts, post-conflict transition and reconstruction processes. The government must ensure that women are consulted during the peace negotiations in order to put into perspective their experiences and obtain firsthand information on ways to address and resolve the problems.
Social and Economic infrastructures
The government also needs to be committed to providing standard social and economic infrastructures in IDP Camps. Those communities need to be a priority for the government who should provide top notch security that will protect women from post trauma abuses.
Lasting Solution
The government must find a way to train, sensitize and educate herders through their traditional and religious leaders to embrace the ranching system that has proven to work in other climes. They should be trained to understand that business models in the 21st century have progressed beyond the nomad system. Society as we know it today can no longer support open grazing and this should be the stance of any progressive nation. Cattle rearing must be seen as what it is, a business and every business owner needs to take adequate steps to acquiring all that is necessary for that business to thrive. This includes the purchase of available land, fencing of the land in order to prevent encroachment and the purchase of all tools and materials that would allow that business to be self-sufficient and Herders should not be exceptions to this model.
References:
The root cause of farmers-herders crisis in North Central Nigeria’ by Plangshak Musa Suchi, and Sallek Yaks Musa (2021)
Gbamwuan, Asor. (2022). FARMER- HERDER CONFLICTS AND THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC PREDICAMENTS OF WOMEN IN NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal. 9. 90-105. 10.14738/assrj.96.11318.
Harvest of Death: Three Years of Bloody Clashes Between Farmers and Herders-AmnestyInternational,2018
Premium Times (2018): How Nigerian govt’s failures fuel farmers, herders conflict causing nearly 4,000 deaths – Amnesty International.
Journal, IERJ. “CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF HERDERS-FARMERS CONFLICT AND ITS GENDER IMPLICATION IN PLATEAU STATE.” International Education and Research Journal (2018): n. pag. Print.
Women Suffer Disproportionately During And After War, Security Council Told During Day-Long Debate On Women, Peace And SecurityUN Press ReleaseSC/7908https://www.un.org/press/en/2003/sc7908.doc.htm
UN Security Council Resolutions on women, peace and security: https://www.ohchr.org/en/women/womens-human-rights-and-gender-related-concerns-situations-conflict-and-instability
[1]Understanding the Herder-Farmer Conflict in NigeriaBy Ugwumba Egbuta: https://www.accord.org.za/conflict-trends/understanding-the-herder-farmer-conflict-in-nigeria/
[2]Gbamwuan, Asor. (2022). FARMER- HERDER CONFLICTS AND THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC PREDICAMENTS OF WOMEN IN NORTH CENTRAL NIGERIA. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal. 9. 90-105. 10.14738/assrj.96.11318.https://bit.ly/3RcodCa (accessed 29th June 2022)
[3]Ibid and https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/301429-how-nigerian-govts-failures-fuel-farmers-herders-conflict-causing-nearly-4000-deaths-amnesty-international.html(accessed 1st July 2022)
[4]Amnesty International, 2018
[5]https://bit.ly/3RcodCa (accessed 29th June 2022)
[6]Journal, IERJ. “CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF HERDERS-FARMERS CONFLICT AND ITS GENDER IMPLICATION IN PLATEAU STATE.” International Education and Research Journal (2018): n. pag. Print.https://www.academia.edu/45296733/CAUSES_AND_CONSEQUENCES_OF_HERDERS_FARMERS_CONFLICT_AND_ITS_GENDER_IMPLICATION_IN_PLATEAU_STATE (accessed 29th June 2022)
[7]‘The root cause of farmers-herders crisis in North Central Nigeria’ by Plangshak Musa Suchi, and Sallek Yaks Musa (2021)
[8]Ibid
[9] See testimony of the leader of the farmers’ association in Mbawa communityin Guma LGA of Benue State(KII with Leader of the Farming community in Mbawa, Daudu, 20/10/2020)
[10]KII with Women Leader, Keana LGA of Nasarawa State, 24/10/2020
[11]https://guardian.ng/opinion/abuse-of-women-in-idps/; https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/407902-special-report-how-boko-haram-displaced-women-girls-are-sexually-abused-at-idp-camps-1.html ; https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352645942_Coverage_of_Gender-Based_Violence_in_IDP_Camps_A_critical_Analysis_of_select_Nigerian_Newspapers/downloadand https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262229579_The_Prevalence_of_Sexual_Violence_among_Female_Refugees_in_Complex_Humanitarian_Emergencies_a_Systematic_Review_and_Meta-analysis(accessed 1st July 2022)
[12]https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/03/boko-haram-women-girls-randomly-raped-in-idps-camps-in-exchange-for-food-water-ledap/
[13]https://guardian.ng/opinion/abuse-of-women-in-idps/
[14]https://www.healthline.com/health/revictimization#the-effects
[15] A US based anti-sexual violence organization that carries out programs to prevent sexual violence, help survivors, and ensure that perpetrators are brought to justice.https://www.rainn.org/about-rainn
[16]https://www.rainn.org/statistics/victims-sexual-violence(accessed 29th June 2022)
[17]https://www.sfcg.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Policy_Brief_on_the_Impact_of_Farmer_Herder_Conflict_on_Women_in_Adamawa_Gombe_and_Plateau_States_of_Nigeria.pdf
[18]The root cause of farmers-herders crisis in North Central Nigeria (2021)
[19]Gyang, 2020).ibid pg 6
[20]https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/wom_Dec%2001%20single%20pg.pdf (accessed 3rd July 2022)
[21]Widowhood: Between a rock and a hard place (1): https://bit.ly/3Ia5O4y(accessed 3rd July 2022)
[22]Practice and Correlates of Widowhood Rites in A City in North Central Nigeria: https://www.academia.edu/40479147/Practice_and_Correlates_of_Widowhood_Rites_in_A_City_in_North_Central_Nigeria(accessed 3rd July 2022)
[23] IMPACT OF FARMERS-HERDSMEN CONFLICT ON THE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING OF GIRLS AND WOMEN IN BENUE STATE, NIGERIA Ruth Ochanya Adio-Mosesa and Tajudeen A. Akanjia a University of Ibadan, Nigeria Statement of the problem. (accessed 28th June 2022)
[24]Widowhood in African Society and its effects on Women’s Health: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1831944/(accessed 28th June 2022)
[25] Violent Traditional Gender Practices And Implications For Nation Building Process In Nigeria: https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/PPAR/article/viewFile/2935/2973
[26]Crisis Group Africa Report, 2020
[27]‘The root cause of farmers-herders crisis in North Central Nigeria’ by Plangshak Musa Suchi, and Sallek Yaks Musa (2021)
Credit:barristerng
